GAR 2015 Main Report

Note: BRIICS = Brazil, Russia, India, Indonesia, China, South Africa.

239

Mangrove conservation and restoration is another area where considerable efforts have been invested, though the results are still mixed. For example, 9,050 hectares of mangroves were planted in West Bengal, India between 1989 and 1995 with a success rate of only 1.5 per cent (Lewis, 2001

Lewis, Roy R. 2001,Mangrove Restoration – Costs and Benefits of Successful Ecological Restoration, In review, Proceedings of the Mangrove Valuation Workshop, Universitity Sains Malaysia, Penang, 4-8 April 2001. Beijer International Institute of Ecological Economics, Stockholm, Sweden.. .

). Mangroves can reduce flood impact by protecting against storm surge, reducing wave heights by up to 50 centimetres and reducing surface waves from wind by more than 75 per cent (McIvor et al., 2013

McIvor, A.L., T. Spencer, I. Möller and M. Spalding. 2013,The response of mangrove soil surface elevation to sea level rise, Natural Coastal Protection Series: Report 3. The Nature Conservancy and Wetlands International.. .

). However, the conditions for successful restoration are not found everywhere.

To address these challenges, hybrid approaches using mangrove reforestation in combination with common structural solutions have also been developed to reduce delta and coastal vulnerability and to create socioeconomic benefits at the same time (Winterwerp et al., 2003). For example, in north-central Java, Indonesia, mangrove belts were widely promoted but did not stabilize eroding coastlines and could not be restored successfully due to the morphology of the shoreline.

Instead, the coast continued to degrade at an alarming rate (Winterwerp et al., 2014

Winterwerp, Han, Bregje van Wesenbeeck, Jan van Dalfsen, Femke Tonneijck, Apri Astra, Stefan Verschure and Pieter van Eijk. 2014,A sustainable solution for massive coastal erosion in Central Java - Towards Regional Scale Application of Hybrid Engineering, Discussion paper. Deltares and Wetlands International.. .

). However, a combination of permeable structures on the one hand and engineering techniques on the other enabled enough sediment to accumulate, thus creating sufficient elevation for the mangroves to colonize naturally (ibid.).

While anecdotal examples of successful (and unsuccessful) approaches to ecosystem and environmental management abound, it is difficult to measure their global impact. However, significant investments in restoring and protecting natural capital are being made, and they have proved to be effective in reversing the loss of biodiversity and ecosystem decline at the local level (OECD, 2012

OECD (Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development). 2012,OECD Environmental Outlook to 2050: The consequences of Inaction, Paris: OECD Publishing.. .

). For example, efforts in reforestation and natural forest regeneration, particularly in OECD countries and emerging economies, are projected to show results from 2020 onwards, with a significant increase in overall forest cover projected to continue up to 2050 (Figure 12.8).

Figure 12.8 Global forest area change, 2010-2050

(Source: OECD, 2012

OECD (Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development). 2012,OECD Environmental Outlook to 2050: The consequences of Inaction, Paris: OECD Publishing.. .

	Note: BRIICS = Brazil, Russia, India, Indonesia, China, South Africa. 239 Mangrove conservation and restoration is another area where considerable efforts have been invested, though the results are still mixed. For example, 9,050 hectares of mangroves were planted in West Bengal, India between 1989 and 1995 with a success rate of only 1.5 per cent (Lewis, 2001 x Lewis, Roy R. 2001,Mangrove Restoration – Costs and Benefits of Successful Ecological Restoration, In review, Proceedings of the Mangrove Valuation Workshop, Universitity Sains Malaysia, Penang, 4-8 April 2001. Beijer International Institute of Ecological Economics, Stockholm, Sweden.. . ). Mangroves can reduce flood impact by protecting against storm surge, reducing wave heights by up to 50 centimetres and reducing surface waves from wind by more than 75 per cent (McIvor et al., 2013 x McIvor, A.L., T. Spencer, I. Möller and M. Spalding. 2013,The response of mangrove soil surface elevation to sea level rise, Natural Coastal Protection Series: Report 3. The Nature Conservancy and Wetlands International.. . ). However, the conditions for successful restoration are not found everywhere. To address these challenges, hybrid approaches using mangrove reforestation in combination with common structural solutions have also been developed to reduce delta and coastal vulnerability and to create socioeconomic benefits at the same time (Winterwerp et al., 2003). For example, in north-central Java, Indonesia, mangrove belts were widely promoted but did not stabilize eroding coastlines and could not be restored successfully due to the morphology of the shoreline. Instead, the coast continued to degrade at an alarming rate (Winterwerp et al., 2014 x Winterwerp, Han, Bregje van Wesenbeeck, Jan van Dalfsen, Femke Tonneijck, Apri Astra, Stefan Verschure and Pieter van Eijk. 2014,A sustainable solution for massive coastal erosion in Central Java - Towards Regional Scale Application of Hybrid Engineering, Discussion paper. Deltares and Wetlands International.. . ). However, a combination of permeable structures on the one hand and engineering techniques on the other enabled enough sediment to accumulate, thus creating sufficient elevation for the mangroves to colonize naturally (ibid.). While anecdotal examples of successful (and unsuccessful) approaches to ecosystem and environmental management abound, it is difficult to measure their global impact. However, significant investments in restoring and protecting natural capital are being made, and they have proved to be effective in reversing the loss of biodiversity and ecosystem decline at the local level (OECD, 2012 x OECD (Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development). 2012,OECD Environmental Outlook to 2050: The consequences of Inaction, Paris: OECD Publishing.. . ). For example, efforts in reforestation and natural forest regeneration, particularly in OECD countries and emerging economies, are projected to show results from 2020 onwards, with a significant increase in overall forest cover projected to continue up to 2050 (Figure 12.8). Figure 12.8 Global forest area change, 2010-2050 (Source: OECD, 2012 x OECD (Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development). 2012,OECD Environmental Outlook to 2050: The consequences of Inaction, Paris: OECD Publishing.. . .)	Page 1 Page 10 Page 20 Page 30 Page 40 Page 50 Page 60 Page 70 Page 80 Page 90 Page 100 Page 110 Page 120 Page 130 Page 140 Page 150 Page 160 Page 170 Page 180 Page 190 Page 200 Page 210 Page 220 Page 229 Page 230 Page 231 Page 232 Page 233 Page 234 Page 235 Page 236 Page 237 Page 238 Page 239 Page 240 ->Page 241 Page 242 Page 243 Page 244 Page 245 Page 246 Page 247 Page 248 Page 249 Page 250 Page 251 Page 252 Page 253 Page 260 Page 270 Page 280 Page 290 Page 300 Page 310